ARCHAEOLOGY AND EPIGRAPHY OF MAR THOMA NASRANIS (SAINT THOMAS CHRISTIANS): A PICTORIAL REVIEW
MARTIN
THOMAS ANTONY
(Independent
scholar)
Aram 32: 1&2, (2020), 253-258
Abstract
The Mar
Thoma Nasranis (Saint Thomas Christians) are one of the earliest Christian
communities in the world. Numerous patristic writings and ancient documents
bear witness to the early presence of the Christian faith in India. Apart from
the presence of granite inscriptional tablets, grants engraved on copper plates
and Pahlavi inscribed crosses, not many native documents are extant from the
pre-Portuguese period. In this paper, I would like to focus on photographic
images of some of those valuable inscriptions and discuss their relevance to
the historiography of Indian Christianity. Granite
inscriptional tablets and
the Pahlavi inscribed granite crosses narrate the history of the Saint Thomas
Christians in India, the evolution of an inculturated native Christian
community and the conflicts related to religio-colonial invasion and
suppression. Pahlavi inscribed bas relief crosses tell the story of the migration
of Christians from Persia. Interestingly, copies of the crosses show cultural
adaptations of South Indian artistic elements. These crosses are evidence of
the evolution of a native icon of worship. The inscriptions are found on granite tablets, crosses and altar
wall. They are in East and West Syriac, Pahlavi, a middle Persian script
and in 'vattezhuthu', an ancient script of the local Malayalam language. They
consist of the edict of a
local king, accounts of events, prayers or liturgical formulae and
funerary inscriptions. The
edict of Thazhekkad of the 8-11th century, recording of a local king giving
favours and privileges to the Christians inscribed on a granite slab, is one of
the most ancient inscriptions still extant. The inscriptional tablet at
the ancient church at Muttuchira and the pedestal of the open-air rock cross at
the ancient church of Champakulam are examples of inscriptions which record significant
events. In addition, there are many funerary inscriptions, one of which, found
at the church at Udayamperoor and concerning the death of a Christian king, throws
light on the existence of a Christian dynasty in South India. There are several
Syriac language inscriptions which range from the ancient Judeo-Christian usage
of 'Yah' at the Church at Koratty to inscriptions of Latinised theological
content. These treasures of ancient Christianity in India call for research
from multiple academic disciplines.
SAINT THOMAS CHRISTIANS OF INDIA
The Christians
of Saint Thomas in India are believed to be the community founded by the preaching
of Apostle Thomas in the first century AD.
The Apostle Thomas is held to have been
sent to preach in the Persian Empire, which during this period extended as far
as the north-west of India. Christian communities were founded throughout
Persia, and in places such as Herat, in Afghanistan. Traditional accounts hold
that Apostle Thomas returned to Jerusalem for the Synod of Jerusalem, and then,
during the second dispersal of the apostles, travelled to Socotra, an island in
the Arabian Sea, and thence across the sea to South India, making use of the monsoon
winds.[1]
It is believed that Apostle Thomas landed in Maliamkara, also known as Musiris,
near Kodungalloor.
ARCHAEOLOGY AND EPIGRAPHY IN
HISTORICAL STUDIES
Archaeology
is an important element in historical studies. Archaeology by definition is the
study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and
analysis of artefacts and other physical remains.[2]
It is the scientific study of human activity in the past. This includes the study
of artefacts, architectural elements, biofacts (organic material like bones,
plants, and so on), and the cultural landscape.[3]
Epigraphy
Written
information from the past is available as inscriptions and manuscripts.
Inscriptions and manuscripts are invaluable in the study of history as written
information.
An inscription is a piece of writing or lettering engraved,
etched, incised, traced, stamped or otherwise imprinted into or onto a durable
surface.[4]
Palaeography deals with the forms of writings while epigraphy
deals with not only the lettering but the subject matter of inscriptions as
well.[5]
Epigraphy is a branch of palaeography. The analysis of epigraphic inscriptions
is a very important tool for archaeological studies. Epigraphy is the
scientific study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions.[6] Barthold George Niebuhr, sometimes
called the ‘father of modern historiography’, recognised that inscriptions are
the essential primary sources in the study of antiquity, as documents are for modern
history.[7]
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THOMAS CHRISTIANS
Artefacts
A.
Crosses:
granite bas relief crosses, open air crosses.
B.
Inscriptions
or documentations.
1.
Inscriptions
on granite tablets and altar crosses, copper plates, altar walls, funerary
inscriptions.
2.
Manuscripts:
palm leaf documents (in literature, these are called ‘ola’ which is a Malayalam
word for palm leaf).
3.
Church
murals which provide evidence concerning ancient practices, such as the
customary method of blessing crosses, the attire of the clergy, and the theological
understanding of the community.
4.
Plaster
art: this is found in some churches built in the post-Portuguese period, depicting
certain unusual creatures and animals, probably from Biblical descriptions, and
throwing light on certain historical events, including the attack of Tippu
Sultan, a Muslim conqueror who attacked several Christian churches and is
likely the subject of plaster artworks depicting a tiger and soldiers with a gun.
Architectural
Elements
1.
The Mailappore
tomb.
2.
Tombs
of the 9th century Fathers Mar Denha, Mar Abo, Mar Younan and Mar
Raban.
3.
Large
open-air rock crosses.
4.
Granite
altar crosses.
5.
The architecture
of ancient churches.
6.
Granite
baptismal fonts.
BIOFACTS AND
Cultural Landscapes
Excavations at Pattanam near Kodungalloor
and excavations at the Mailappore Tomb of Apostle Thomas.
Recent
excavations in Pattanam near Kodungalloor in Kerala indicate the presence of a
port in a location which is now some distance from the shore, near Pattanam. The
archaeological discovery of a wide range of objects, including beads and
variety of local, Mediterranean and Roman pottery, reveal a strong maritime
trade relation with the Middle East.[8]
Palaeobotanical evidence from the wharf site and a canoe excavated from the
Pattanam excavation site provide further indications of the existence of
ancient spice trade, operating from the port of Muziris from the 1st century BC
to the 4th century AD.[9]
This is a piece of strong
evidence that there were all the facilities for Apostle Thomas to arrive in
South India in the first century.
CROSSES
Open air Granite crosses are seen
widespread among ancient Saint Thomas Christian settlements. These crosses were
probably the most ancient places of worship. Many of these crosses are seen on
the wayside with facilities for lighting lamps and breaking coconuts as a
ritual among the native Dravidian communities. Narrations of Joseph, the Indian
in AD 1502 comments about the presence of these crosses attached to the
churches[10].
Pahlavi inscribed bas relief crosses
are seen as altar crosses in the ancient Thomas Christian Churches. Details
of these crosses are given in the next section of this paper.
Inscriptional
Tablets: Historical Documentation
It is
unfortunate that most of the manuscripts relating to the history of the St
Thomas Christians have been lost, partly due to the climate of South India.
Palm leaves are very fragile and not long-lasting. Therefore, copper plates were
used for particularly important documentation.
Many documents were systematically destroyed by Portuguese
missionaries, who considered them to be vehicles of heresy. During the
Portuguese invasion, the Archbishop of Goa, Alexis Dom Menesis, visited all the
Thomas Christian churches specifically in order to collect their manuscripts
for destruction.[11]
This was a great loss for historians as most of the liturgical and
paraliturgical manuscripts were lost forever, although some were preserved by the
families of the clergy.
There are also a large number of inscriptions on granite
tablets found around the ancient Thomas Christians communities and churches.
Most of them are the funerary inscriptions of prominent persons. There are a
few records of events and prayer formulae.
Funerary
Inscriptions
The
oldest among these is a funerary inscriptional tablet found at the ancient
church at Aruvithura, in the eastern part of the Kottayam District in Kerala.
There are a number of inscribed funerary tablets displayed in the church. The
oldest is from AD 927. This ‘vattezhuthu’ inscription, which is not completely
deciphered, reads “… in the year 102 …”.
This could refer to the Malayalam Era (Kolla varsham), in which case the date
would correspond to AD 927.
There are a number of funerary inscriptional tablets kept at
the church at Udayamperoor, where the infamous Synod of Diamper took place.
These tablets offer some evidence for the existence of a Christian dynasty in
Kerala. One of the inscriptional tablets placed in the museum at Udayamperoor
reads “chennongalathu partha villarvattam
Thoma rajavu nadu neengi, 1500 kumbham randam theeyathi”.[12] This
could be rendered in English as ‘on the second day of the month of kumbham, in
the year 1500 (probably AD 1500), the King of Villarvattam, who resided at
Chennamangalam, passed away’.[13]
There was another tablet, now lost, which mentioned the death of
“Chenamparampil mathulla thampuran” (Lord/King Mathulla of Chenamparampil).[14]
There are a number of inscribed tablets found at churches
including Pallippuram church, Kanjoor church, and Kaduthuruthy church, among
many others. These talk about the death of certain important persons.[15]
Saint
George’s church, Aruvithura, Kottayam Kerala, India. (Syro Malabar Church),
funerary inscription
Funerary
inscriptional tablet, Saint Mary’s Forane Church, Kaduthuruthy, Kerala, India.
(Syro
Malabar Knanaya)
A funerary
inscription at Udayamperoor church concerning King Thomas of Villarvattom. Saint
Mary’s Church (Synod of Diamper Church), Udayamperoor, Ernakulam District,
Kerala. Syro Malabar Church)
Funerary
inscriptional tablets, Saint Mary’s Forane Church, Kanjoor, Ernakualm District,
Kerala, India. (Syro Malabar Church)
Funerary
inscriptions, Saint Mary’s Forane Church, Pallippuram, Alleppey District, Kerala,
India.
(Syro
Malabar Church.)
NARRATION OF EVENTS
muttuchira lithic inscriptions
The Muttuchira
Lithic inscriptional tablet, found at the Ruha D Khudisa Church at Muttuchira,
Kottayam, is a rectangular granite slab with inscriptions in two sections
narrating events that occurred in AD 1528, 1580 and 1581. Mr T. K. Joseph, an
eminent historian of the early twentieth century, considered that this
inscriptional tablet was probably made in AD 1581 or later.[16]
The first section of the inscription, on the left half of the
tablet, records the erection of a cross on the ground by Bishops Mar Denha[17]
and Mar Avoo, along with ‘Cathanar’ (‘Pastor’ in the local tongue) Giwargis in
AD 1528, upon the order of the Lord, and then records that Cathanar Giwargis
went to Portugal along with his nephew.
The second section, on the right half of the inscriptional
tablet, narrates events in AD 1580 and 1581. In AD 1580, on a Sunday, the 13th
day of the month of ‘kanni’ (Malayalam era), on the feast of Mar Sliva (Holy
Cross), this cross was erected and covered with wood/sand. In the same year, on
the 18th day of ‘kanni’, on the feast day, this ‘uthira kurishu’ (or
‘bleeding Cross’: a model for the famous bleeding Cross of Mailappore) was
erected. In AD 1581, on the day of Good Friday, the 29th day of
‘meenam’(Malayalam era month meenam), this granite cross (an open-air granite
cross) was erected.[18]
This inscription describes a number of events and throws
light on the religio-cultural milieu of the time. These inscriptions must date
from during or after AD 1581. Events recorded as taking place in AD 1528 include
the erection of a cross on the ground. This suggests the building of a new
church on the old site by erecting a cross to bless the ground. It also
describes a Cathanar (pastor) travelling to Portugal, recording a friendly
phase of the relation
between Thomas Christians and the Portuguese missionaries. In 1580, another
cross was erected and covered with sand (perhaps this indicates plastering) and
another narrative records the erection of the cross which was the model of the
Mailappore cross: the Pahlavi inscribed cross, on the feast of Holy Cross. This
seems to describe moving the altar cross from the old site to the new site.
This offers evidence for a few historical events:
1. The celebration of the feast of Holy Cross in the month of
kanni.
2. The terminology ruthira kurishu means ‘bleeding
cross’, echoing accounts of the Mailappore cross sweating blood, as reported by
Portuguese missionaries.
3. The installation of the open-air granite cross in AD 1581.
Muttuchira
inscription, Ruha D Kudisa Forane Church Muttuchira, Kottayam District, Kerala,
India.
Kanjoor wooden inscription
“Mishiha pirannittu orairathi nanootti moonnu kalam annu
kollam 577 andu mithina maasam ancham theeyathi akkara vethethi maari kazhi palaka
panithu. Ezhupathettamandu thula maasam ettinu utharam kayatti. Annu naduvile
cheelanthi 4 nnu churulu marreettilla. Kumbha maasam pazhe kanakkil 12 kuniak
tharachu vithanam vachuvappalasseril assari kele kunjittunnaman ethu ezhuthu”.[19]
This inscription is talking about the renovation work done in
AD 1403, which is clarified in the inscription as Malayalam Era 577. It is
interesting to note that the year was described as ‘in the year of Christ’ 1403
and clarified as ‘kollam’ 577. This demonstrates that Anno Domini dating
was used in the pre-Portuguese period.
champakulam
open-air rock cross inscription
The
open-air rock cross at the ancient Marth Maryam Basilica at Champakulam in the Alleppey
District of Kerala has an inscription
around it in old Malayalam script. This records the renovation of the Church
and the replacement of the open-air rock cross. According to the inscription,
the cross was placed on the eastern side of the old church. About 670 years
after the renovation, in AD 1821, the cross was taken down when the madbha[20]
was restored, and replaced when the cemetery was built in AD 1857.[21]
From this, it can
be assumed that in AD 1151 this cross was placed on the eastern side of the
church. This is the only cross with documentary evidence of such antiquity.[22]
Champakulam
open air cross inscription, Marth Maryam Basilica, Champakulam, Alleppey
District, Kerala, India (Syro Malabar Church)
Another vattezhuthu inscription at
Chamapkulam Marth Maryam Basilica, on a stepping stone which has been eroded
away, reads 844. This date could be the Malayalam era, corresponding to AD
1669. This could be a tombstone.
Marth
Maryam Basilica, Champakulam, Alleppey District, Kerala, India.(Syro Malabar
Church),
stepping
stone inscription.
Edict of
Thazhekkadu / Thazhekkad Sassanam
This
is an edict written in ‘Vattezhuth’ script on a large granite slab found at the
base of the open-air rock cross at ‘Thazhekkad’ Church in Trichur District in
Kerala. Currently it is kept on the premises of the church. There are
inscriptions on both sides.[23]
This edict was issued by King Rajasimhan(1028-1043 AD), conferring certain
privileges on ‘Chathan vadukan’ and ‘Iravi Kothan’, two local Christian traders
who were members of ‘Manigramam’, a trade guild.[24]
This granite slab is most likely a public copy on a stone of an original copper plate document given
to the Christian settlers.[25]
Edict
of Thazhekkadu AD 1028-43 in vattezhuthu, Saint Sebastian’s Church,
Thazhekkadu, Irinjalakkuda, Kerala, India. (Syro Malabar Church.)
Kaduthuruthy
St Mary’s Church inscription.
A
granite slab at Kaduthuruthy Saint Mary’s Church in vattezhuthu records the
rebuilding of the old church and its consecration by Mar Abraham in AD 1590:
Maran icho mishiah pirannittu 1590
Kollam 765 Kumbham 22 njayarazhcha, palli valuthai paniyan, Mar Avira methranum
kathangalum Kurbana kuppayam ittu oru kallu anchu kaikalil pidichu maduvail vechu. Ammeneecho.
As part of rebuilding the church,
Bishop Mar Abraham and the Priests, after wearing vestments, took a stone and placed in the madbha. Amen
Jesus.
Kaduthuruthy
inscription in vattezhuthu, Saint Mary’s Forane Church, Kaduthuruthy, Kottayam District, Kerala,
India. (Syro Malabar Church, Knanaya)
Mulanthuruthy
inscription
This
inscription in Estrangela records the installation of the main door of the
Syriac orthodox church at Mulanthuruthy in AD 1575.[26]
Mulanthuruthy
inscription, Marthomman Jacobite Syrian cathedral, Mulanthuruthy, Kerala,
India.
(Syriac
Orthodox)
PRAYER FORMULAE/THEOLOGICAL
FORMULAE
Pahlavi
inscriptions on altar crosses
Prayer
formulae are found on the granite altar crosses. The Pahlavi inscribed granite
crosses of South India are a type of granite bas relief crosses with Pahlavi
inscriptions. Antonio Gouvea reported that during the visit of Archbishop
Menesis, almost all of the ancient churches were adorned with these crosses -
he described these crosses as ‘Saint Thomas’ Crosses’, as they were called by
the people of the time. This could mean that these were the religio-cultural
symbol of the Saint Thomas Christians in the seventeenth century. During the
same period, due to the excavations of Portuguese missionaries at Mailappore, the
‘miraculous cross of Mailappore’ was found at the tomb of Saint Thomas the
Apostle, and immediately became famous.
Several scholars deciphered these Pahlavi
inscriptions, which were the subject of discussions in reputed oriental
scholastic forums. There are several versions of these translations:
1.
In punishment by the Cross, was the suffering
of this One, he who is the true Christ and the God above, and Guide ever pure.
(A C Burnell1878)[27]
2.
Who believes in the Mishiha (Syriac word for
Christ-Anointed) and God above, and in the Holy Ghost is redeemed through the
Grace of Him who bore the Cross. (Martin Haug 1874)[28]
3.
He whom the suffering of the self-same
Mishiha, the forgiving and upraising, has saved, is offering the plea whose
origin was the agony of this. (E M West 1896)[29]
4.
One who is the true Mishiha the reconciler,
raising him ever purifies from virtue from the crucifixion of Him. (Baron De
Harlez (1892)[30]
5.
Four readings of Pahlavi and Parsi scholar Dastur
Darab Peshotan Sanjana (1914)[31]
i.
Such
was the affliction of the wounding and spearing of him who was faithful
Mishiha, a forgiver, of superior dignity the descendant of Chahr Bukht.
ii.
This
was the affliction of the spearing and wounding of him on the cross who was the
faithful Mishiha, the merciful one, the descendant of the Great Abrahim, the
descendant of Chahr Bukht.
iii.
He of
whom the faithful Mishiha was a forgiver, highly exalted, redeemed from the
four, was due to the affliction of spearing and wounding on the Cross.
iv.
This
was the affliction on the cross even of the messenger of Jehova.
6.
I, a beautiful bird from Nineveh, have come to
this country, written by Mar Shapur. Holy Misiha, the forgiver, freed me from
thorn (afflictions). Dr J J Modi1923-26)[32]
7.
C P T Winkworth 1929
i.
My
Lord Christ have mercy on Afras, son of Chahr bukht, the Syrian who cut this.[33]
ii. My Lord Christ have mercy upon Afras the son of
Chahr bukht, the Syrian who preserved this.[34]
iii. My Lord Christ, have mercy upon Afras, son of
Chahr bukht , the Syrian who put it around.[35]
8.
Our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy about son of
Chaharbuxt, son of George who erects this. (W B Henning 1958).[36]
9.
Lord
Mishiha, (Christ) saviour too, and supreme revelation too (of) four Apostles
Syrians who saved this. /Lord
and saviour and supreme revelation of the four apostles gave salvation (B T
Anklesaria 1958)[37]
10. May our
Lord Messiah have mercy on Gabriel, son of Chaharbokht, grandson of Durzad who
made this (cross) (Gerd Gropp 1970)[38]
11. May
our Lord the Messiah have mercy upon Sabriso, son of Chaharboxt the deft, who
sculpted this (Cross) (Philippe Gignoux 1995)[39]
12. Our
Lord Christ, have pity on Sabriso, son of Chaharboxt, son of Suray who bore
(brought?) this (Cross) (Carlo G Cereti, Luca M Oliviery, Fr Joseph
Vazhuthanappalli (CICAAR-CASI) 2002)[40]
13. My Lord
is the Mishiha and life-giver, who be praised forever because of salvation. Indeed,
the Lord suffered crucifixion to redeem us. (Shailanand Hemraj 2014)[41]
These crosses bear the story of the migration and integration
of the Persian Christians into the Indian Church.
C P T Winkworth studied the Mailappore cross, two crosses of
Kottayam and the cross at Kadamattom and noted in 1929 that these inscriptions
are unintelligent copies of an original. He found that there are only a few
minor differences: some letters are not cut correctly, some are cut upside down
and there is a mirror image character on the Kadamattom Cross. He proposed that
these are copies of an original, made from estampages on a paper or parchment
from the original and arranged in such a way as to reproduce the inscriptions,
and that while doing so, the sculptor used the reverse side of the medium to
cut a certain character, tried to correct a straight line into a curved line
without erasing the former, and omitted certain portions. Using this
calligraphic analysis, Winkworth concluded that the smaller Kottayam Cross
inscription is the original, the Mailappore cross is an intelligent copy of it
(that is, there are no major aberrations), while the larger Kottayam cross
shows some aberrations, and the Kadamattom cross shows significant aberrations.[42]
This is reflected in
the translation of Mr J J Modi as shown before. Winkworth’s arguments were
presented in the 17th International Congress of Orientals held at
Oxford in 1928 and were generally accepted by the Iranian scholars who were also
present.[43]
More crosses were subsequently discovered, and B T Anklesaria
had the opportunity to study the crosses at Mailappore, Kottayam, Kadamattom,
Alengad and Muttuchira, as well as the previous interpretations. Anklesaria
commented that the inscription on Alengad cross was most likely the original
and the most ancient, perhaps dating to as early as AD 340, based on
orthographic and epigraphic evidence. Anklesaria found that the 9th-word
‘suriha’ is cut correctly only on the Alengad cross, the conjunct ‘ich’ at the
end of the third word and the seventh word are cut distinctly on the Alenagd
cross and the smaller Kottayam Cross, but the ‘ich’ at the end of the third
word is dropped on the larger Kottayam Cross. The ‘ch’ of the eighth word
‘chahar-bap’ is connected by mistake to the ‘ich’ of the seventh word in both
Kottayam crosses, but is cut correctly on the Alengad cross. Also the conjunct
u is prefixed to the fourth word ‘madam’ only on the Alengad cross.[44]
The Alengad cross has a crack at the right lower part, which
makes the b in the 11th word read as a v, but the letter is correctly
written on both Kottayam Crosses, the Mailappore cross and Muttuchira cross.
This confirms that this crack was formed after the inscription was copied. This
crack might have formed when the old church at Alenagd, where this cross was
placed like an altar cross, was burned down in a war between kingdoms of Parur
and Mangattu in AD 1603, as described by Antonio Gouvea.[45]
Considering the opinions of Winkworth and Anklesaria, it
becomes clear that these crosses with a prayer formula inscribed in Pahlavi
script originally belonged to the Pahlavi speaking migrant Persian Christians.
These crosses with inscriptions were copied locally by sculptors who did not
know Pahlavi. Calligraphic evidence suggests that the Alengad cross could be
the original and could be from the period around AD 340. It was copied by local
Christian congregations with minor aberrations to the inscriptions and gradual
changes in the design of the cross, with local adaptations taking place along
the east coast of South India, so that the Mailappore cross, for instance, is
distinguished by artistic elements, such as distinctive pillars and Makara Torana, which have been adopted
from the local culture.
Alengad
Sliva, Saint Mary’s Church Alengad, Ernakulam District, Kerala, India. (Syro
Malabar Church).
Kottayam
Valia Palli Cross, Pahlavi inscriptions. Saint Mary’s
Knanaya Valiyapalli, Kottayam,
Kerala, India. (Syriac Orthodox).
Kottayam
Valiya Palli cross, Pahlavi and Syriac inscriptions, Saint Mary’s Knanaya
Valiyapalli, Kottayam, Kerala, India. (Syriac Orthodox).
Mailappore
Cross, Mailappore, Tamilnadu, India. Pahlavi inscriptions, Our Lady of
Expectation Shrine, Parangimalai, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
Kadamattom
Cross, Saint Goerge Church Kadamattom, Ernakulam District, Kerala, India,
(Malankara
Orthodox Church).
Kothanalloor
Cross, no inscriptions. SS Gaevasis and Proctasius Church, Kothanalloor,
Kottayam, Kerala India.(Syro Malabar Church).
Muttuchira
Sliva with Pahlavi inscriptions, Ruha D Kudisa Forane Church Muttuchira,
Kottayam, Kerala, India (Syro Malabar Church).
‘Yah’ on the Koratty Open air Rock cross.
The
ancient open-air cross at the church of Koratty in the Ernakulam District of
Kerala of the Syro-Malabar Church has Syriac inscriptions on it. This open-air
cross looks very old, with facilities for lighting oil lamps. The cross has two
horizontal arms, a short slab on the top of it and a longer one in the usual
position, some distance below the top one. The inscriptions are in 3 lines, on
the top horizontal arm, on the vertical piece between the two horizontal arms
and the bottom horizontal arm.
The top line reads: ‘Hana isho nasraya malca d ihoodaya’
meaning ‘This one is Jesus the nasrite, the king of Jews’
The second line reads: ‘Yah.’ This is the Syriac version of
the Tetragrammaton of the name of God.
The third line reads:‘Hana emreh d alaha hoo daskal hatheeth
d’ alma’ meaning ‘Behold the Lamb of God who took away the sins of the World’.[46]
The use of this ancent form, Yah, is highly significant. The
Tetragrammaton (Hebrew YHWH) is the name of God in the Old Testament, with
vowels added by scholars thought to represent the most likely vocalisation. In
Syriac manuscripts, the usage is ‘Mari Yah’, meaning Lord God. This inscription
is a classic example of the Judeo-Christian nature of Christianity in South
India.
Open-air
Rock Cross Koratty, Kerala, India with inscriptions ‘Yah’(Saint Mary’s Church,
Koratty, Thrissur, Kerala, India, Syro Malabar Church).
Open-air
Rock Cross Koratty, Kerala, India with inscriptions ‘Yah’(Saint Mary’s Church,
Koratty, Thrissur, Kerala, India, Syro Malabar Church)
(Picture
courtesy: Rev Dr Jacob Thekkeparampil)
Inscription on Muzhikulam Open-air rock cross
The
open-air cross at the Syro Malabar Church at Muzhikkulam, Ernakulam District in
Kerala is the same shape as the Koratty cross, with two cross arms. There is a
line of Syriac inscription on the top cross arm which reads: ‘Hanau Malka d
ihoodaya’ ‘This one is the King of Jews’.[47]
Saint Mary’s Church, Moozhikulam Ernakulam District, Kerala
India. Syriac inscription on open-air rock cross.
Inscription
on Open-air rock cross of Kottayam Valiya Palli
This
is an ancient church that belongs to the Knanaya Jacobite Syrian Church at
Kottayam, popularly known as Kottayam Valiya Palli, the Great Church of
Kottayam. This open-air rock cross also has a top horizontal bar on which a
cross is engraved, and on the right-hand side of the cross Syriac letters are
engraved in two lines, ‘Hes’: ‘Noon’.
Below this is written ‘noon’, ‘meem’, ‘yod’. This is the
abbreviation of INRI in Syriac: ‘Hana isho nasraya malca d ihoodaya’.[48]
Kottayam
Valia Palli Open-air rock cross inscription. (Saint Mary’s Knanaya Valiya
Palli, Kottayam, Kerala, India. ( Syriac Orthodox Church Knanaya).
(Picture
courtesy:Rev Dr Jacob Thekkeparampil)
Pallippuram granite cross
This
is a small granite cross found in the premises of the ancient church at Pallippuram
in Alleppey District in Kerala. The cross shows a few Syriac letters on the top
end where the INRI is seen usually. This could be an abbreviation of INRI in
Syriac as yod, noon, meem, yod. But the letters are not very clear: the second
character seems to be noon, followed by meem and then beth. It could be that the
inscriber was illiterate in Syriac characters and so copied the characters
incorrectly, or made them indistinct in an attempt at correcting earlier
mistakes. The third character, ‘meem’, shows some indistinct cuts, suggesting
there was an attempt to correct it. The
inscription could also be a year denoted in Syriac characters.
Pallippuram
church- Syriac inscription on a cross. Saint Mary’s Forane Church, Pallippuram,
Alleppey District, Kerala, India. (Syro Malabar Church).
Mailappore Saint Thomas Tomb Church inscription
This
is an unknown inscription noted by an early Portuguese traveller at the main
door of the Tomb of Saint Thomas at Mailappore, Chennai. The inscription was
copied down on paper and sent to the Portuguese National Archive (Arquivo
Nacional de Torre do Tombo) in Lisbon. This was published in 1964 in the volume
‘As Gavetas da Torre do Tombo Vol IV, (Gaveta XV Macos 1-15)’. The person who
sent the copy to Lisbon accompanied the copy of the inscription with a note: ‘these
letters below written are in the main door of the Church of the well adventured
Apostle Saint Thomas’.
Copy
of Mailappore inscriptions kept in Portuguese archives at Lisbon.
The inscription is in four lines. Eminent Syriac scholar Professor
Sebastian Brock, of Oxford University, has commented that this is not easy to
read but that some words are definite. The reading is as follows (doubtful
letters have ? after them in the transcription):
Line
1 n’mr? s?lq? there has ascended
Line
2 bshl?m mshy?h?’? in peace Christ
Line
3 sh’l(n?) rhm’ he
asks for us mercy
Line
4 mn ‘lh’ from
God
Another possible reading of the first line
and half of the second could be:
n’mr
kwlmn
bshm
let
everyone say in the name of …, but kwlmn would be awkward Syriac, and the
expected kwl’nsh does not seem possible.
Rev Dr Thomas Koonammakkal, a Syriac scholar from India, has
deciphered as follows:
Line
1 lth’ m’ shlm to
Thomas peace
Line
2 bshm mshyh’ in the name of
Christ/in the peace of Christ
Line
3 shly Inwhm’ rest until resurrection
Line
4 mn ‘lh’ from God
Rev Dr Thomas Koonammakkal has commented that one of the
letters is written incorrectly, and that there could have been an attempt to
correct the initial incorrect inscription, resulting in two possible readings
for line 2.
Both these readings are similar. This is a drawing of the
inscription by someone who is illiterate in Syriac, which makes translation
difficult.
The inscription
at the Saint Thomas Cathedral Palai, Kottayam.
This
could be one of the oldest inscriptions.
This is located on a large granite slab at the base of the back wall of
the madbha. The middle section of the slab is not visible as the reredos is
built over it. On the end of the slab, to the right of the reredos, Syriac
inscriptions are partially visible. On the portion of the slab visible to the left
of the reredos, there are four old Malayalam digits which read 1702.
The Syriac inscription on the right-hand side is Estrangela
and is in two lines.
Briquel Chatonett and Thekkeparampil interpreted this as
possibly 1203, or Greek era 2003, which could be AD 1692,[49]
but the Malayalam inscription clearly states 1703. As the inscription is only
partially visible, interpretation is difficult. The top line reads “at the date
of August the third…”. If the bottom
line reads Gamal and the bottom line is read as a number, it will give the year
1203.
Saint
Thomas’s Cathedral old Church, Palai, Kottayam, Kerala, India
(Syro
Malabar Church) Syriac inscription
Saint
Thomas old Cathedral Church, Palai, Kottayam District, Kerala, India. (Syro
Malabar Church) old Malayalm digits denoting the year AD 1703.
ALTAR
INSCRIPTIONS.
There
are Syriac inscriptions on the altars of churches at Pallippuram, Champakulam,
Kudamaloor, Muttuchira, Kottayam Valiyapalli, Kaduthuruthy and many others.
Some of the modern ones have Latin content; Kandeesa Sebastianose and Kandeesa
Dominingos at Pallippuram church, for instance, are purely Latin in origin. At Champakulam
and Muttuchira, the decorative ribbon bands held by the angels on the reredos
carry Syriac inscriptions. At Kudamaloor, a prayer formula in Syriac is
inscribed below an icon of Saint Mary.
Saint
Mary’s Forane Church, Pallippuram, Alleppey District, Kerala, India. (Syro
Malabar Church), ‘Kandeesa Sebastianose’
Saint
Mary’s Forane Church, Pallippuram, Alleppey District, Kerala, India. (Syro
Malabar Church), ‘Kandeesa Domingose’.
Saint Mary’s Forane Church, Kudamaloor,
Kottayam, Kerala, India. (Syro Malabar Church)
(Picture
courtesy: Rev Dr Jacob Thekkeparampil)
This altar
inscription at Kudamaloor reads:
“Saint
Marth Maryam, the help of the Christians, help all the faithful, pray and
intercede before God, for us to be delivered from all unexpected danger and
from all ills present and future, Amen”.[50]
MANUSCRIPTS
There
are large numbers of palm-leaf documents available in most of the ancient
churches. Most of these are ecclesiastical documents such as marriage or baptism
registers. There are a few chronicles available.
MURALS.
Murals of
Archadeacons and Bishops.
Murals
are common in ancient Thomas Christian Churches. It is not clear if any of
these are pre-Portuguese. The Roman Catholic themes and attire seen in many of
them suggest that these could be post-Portuguese. Many of the murals show
attire and other aspects of the contemporary prelates and clergy of the Saint
Thomas Christians. The Roman Catholic mitre of the Chaldean Bishops and
Archdeacons shows the effects of Latinisation. The blessing cross on the murals
confirms the practice of blessing crosses.
TOMBS
OF MAR DENHA, MAR
RABBAN, MAR YAUNAN AND MAR AVO (AD 905)
There
are a few ancient palm leaf documents kept in certain families as a chronicle of
the Saint Thomas Christians. In 1930, T. K. Joseph reported that, on 26th
of April the same year, he had discovered the existence of a paper manuscript,
the property of the Karuthedathu family at Mavelikkara in Travancore. As per
the manuscript itself, it is a history of Malabar Church copied from older
manuscripts handed down through the generations. This manuscript narrates the arrival of a Bishop Mar Denha in AD 905
(ME 80) at Kollam with three other persons, Rabban, Yaunan and Maravan. It also states that Younan was buried at the church
at Udayamperoor, Raaban was buried in Chennithala Thekkeveettil Kuruvila’s
house at Chennithala in Niranam Parish, Denha was buried at Kottakku purathu
Kodasserry Kannamkulam Mappila's house and Maravan was buried at Thevalakkara
church.[51] The same information is found in the Chronicles
of Niranam[52]
(Niranam Grandhavary), one of the ancient manuscripts kept by the Kaniyanthra
family in Kottayam as a palm-leaf manuscript.[53]
Both these palm leaf manuscripts could be copies of an ancient manuscript
handed down through the generations by making copies.
Tomb of Mar Denha is still kept at Valiyaveettil
family at Kudassanadu near Pandalam in Kerala. Tomb of Mar Rabban is kept at
Chennithala near Mavelikkara in Kerala. Tomb of Maravan (Mar Abo) is at Saint
Mary’s Orthodox Church at Thevalakkara. Tomb of Mar Younan was at the Syro
Malabar Church at Udayamperoor, but this tomb along with a few other tombs at
the Madbha of the church removed during a renovation in 1929 and placed in a
vessel and buried in the Church[54].
CAVE
MONASTERY OF MAR YAUNAN
AT KURAVILANGADU
It
has been documented that there was an east Syrian monastery at Kuravilangadu
inhabited by Persian monks.[55]
On the side of a steep hill near Kuravilangadu, there is a cave which is called
Yaunakkuzhy[56]
by local people, meaning the pit of Yaunan or cave of Younan. For generations,
even the Hindu families in the locality kept alive an oral tradition that
Yaunan Nivya (Prophet
Yaunan-Jonah) lived
in this cave. Common people now conflate this Yaunan with the Biblical Prophet
Yaunan (Jonah). The reason for this could be the annual celebration of a
three-day fast in the nearby ancient church of Kuravilangadu, commemorating Jonah’s
three days in the belly of the great fish. In fact, it was Mar Younan, who arrived in AD 905,
who lived in the monastery at Yaunakkuzhy. The cave was large enough for human
habitation, according to my own interview with local people from older
generations who have
entered into the cave. Now, the opening of the cave is covered with rock and
sand. This could have been one of
many cave monasteries in India, in parallel with the East Syrian cave
monasteries in Persia.[57]
Tomb
of East Syrian Bishop Mar Denha, Kadassanadu, Pandalam, Kerala, India.
Tomb
of East Syrian Monk Rabaan at Chennithala, Kerala, India
Opening
of the cave monastery of Mar Yaunan at Kuravilangadu, Kerala, India. (now
covered with rocks)
Tomb
of Mar Abo- Maravan-Thevalakkara St Mary’s Orthodox Church, Kollam District,
Kerala, India.
Tomb of Mar Abo-
Maravan-Thevalakkara St Mary’s Orthodox Church with a granite slab with an
engraved flowery cross- Saint Mary’s Orthodox Syrian Church, Thevalakkara,
Kollam District, Kerala, India.
CHURCH
ARCHITECTURE
Before
the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries, Saint Thomas Christian Churches
were indistinct from Hindu temples in their architecture. There were no facades;
instead, an Indo-Chinese roof structure covered a wooden gable. In front of these
ancient churches stood large open-air granite crosses. Joseph, the Indian
Cathanar (priest), who visited Rome and Venice in AD 1502, described the large
crosses erected at the foundation of churches in his interview with the Signoria
of Venice, confirming the pre-Portuguese existence of the open-air rock crosses.[58]
These are only a sample of the available
Christian archaeology in India. The Christian archaeology of India has not been
explored sufficiently. There are several ancient sites that need excavation and
research.
Karthikapalli
Saint Thomas Orthodox Church, Kerala, India. One of the typical architectural
styles of Thomas Christian churches.
Kallooppara
Saint Mary’s Orthodox Church, Kerala, India: Indo Chinese architecture of the
roof.
Palm
leaf documents, SS Gevasis and Proctasius Church, Kothanalloor (Syro Malabar
Church) Church of Kandeesangal- Kottayam District, Kerala, India.
Plaster art at Mar Sabor Afroath Church, Akapparampu,
Ernakulam District, Kerala, India. (Syriac Orthodox)
Plaster art Saint Mary’s Church, Kallooppara, Pathanamthitta
District, Kerala,
India. (Syriac Orthodox).
Baptismal font , Saint Mary’s Forane Church,Kanjoor,
Ernakulam District, Kerala, India. Syro Malabar Church)
Baptismal
font: Saint Thomas’ Forane Church, Mailakombu, Idukki District Kerala, India.
(Syro
Malabar Church).
[1] See
A. E. Medlycott, India and Apostle Thomas: an inquiry, with a critical
analysis of the Acta Thomae (London 1905), p. 148.
[2] Oxford Living Dictionaries, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/archaeology accessed on 26 January 2019.
[3]
History of Archaeology, Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_archaeology
accesssed on 09 February 2019.
[4]
John Bodel, ‘Epigraphy and the ancient historian’, in John Bodel, ed. Epigraphic
Evidence:Ancient History from Inscriptions (London, 2001), p. 2.
[5]
John Edwin Sandys, Latin Epigraphy: An introduction to the study of Latin
Inscriptions (Cambridge 1927), p 1.
[6]
Oxford Living Dictionaries, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/epigraphy
accessed on 26 January 2019.
[7]
John Bodel, ‘Epigraphy and the ancient historian’, in John Bodel, ed. Epigraphic
Evidence:Ancient History from Inscriptions (London, 2001), p. 1.
[8]
Cyriac Jose and R. K. Mohanty, ‘Antiquity Of Christianity in India with special
reference to South Central Kerala’, Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies
in Archaeology, 5 (2017), 108.
[9] P.
J. Cherian, 'Pattanam Archaeological Site: The Wharf Context and the Maritime
Exchanges’, in M. Staniforth, ed., Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional
Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: November 8-12, 2011, (Manila,
2011), pp. 131-144.
[10]
Antony Vallavanthara, India
in 1500 AD:The narratives of Joseph the Indian, Piscataway, 2002, p97
[11]
Joseph Thekkedath, History of Christianity in India, vol. ii (Bangalore,
2001), p. 74.
[12]
Chronicles of Old church at Udayamperoor. http://www.synodofdiamper.com/mal/index.php
accessed on 06/03/2019, Dr Jomon Thachil, Kanjoor Kraisthava pazhama (2010), p.
25.
[13] A.
S. Anantha Rama Ayyar, ‘Six Epitaphs of Udayamperoor’, Travancore
Archaeological Series, vol vi (Trivandrum, 1927), pp. 68-70.
[14]
Chronicles of Old Church at Udayamperoor. http://www.synodofdiamper.com/mal/index.php
accesssed on 06/03/2019.
[15]
Cyriac Jose and R. K. Mohanty, ‘Antiquity Of Christianity in India with special
reference to South Central Kerala’, Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies
in Archaeology, 5 (2017), 122-134.
[16] T. K. Joseph, ‘Notes by T K Joseph on Rev H Hosten
S. J., Saint Thomas Christians of Malabar 1490-1504’, Kerala Society Papers Series 5 (1930); reprinted as Kerala
Society Papers (1997), 254.
[17] Mar
Denha is one of the East Syrian Bishops who arrived in AD 1503.
[18] T.
K. Joseph, Malabar Christians and their ancient documents (Trivandrum,
1929), p. 17 and Appendix IV.
[19]
Jomon Thachil, Kaanjoor Kraisthva Pazhama (Christian Antiquities of
Kanjoor) (2010), p. 19.
[20]
This is the Syriac term for altar.
[21]
Antony Vallavanthara, ‘Pazhmayile Paramarthangal’, in Souvenir of the
Diamond Jubilee of the Leo XIII Library (Champakulam, 1974).
[22] M. T.
Antony, Champakulam kalloorkkadu Saint Mary’s Church, the Hidden pearl in
Nasrani history, Nasrani Syrian Christian network, NSC 2012, https://www.nasrani.net/2010/01/30/champakulam-kalloorkkadu-st-marys-church/
accessed on 19/05/2019.
[23] T.
K. Joseph, ‘A Rajasimha Inscription at Thalekkad in Cochin’, The Indian
Antiquary (1928), 24.
[24]
Pius Malekkandathil, ‘Spatial and temporal continuities of Merchant Networks in
South Asia and the Indian Ocean’, Journal of the Economic and Social History
of the Orient, 50/2/3, (2007), 263.
[25] T.
K. Joseph, ‘A Rajasimha Inscription at Thalekkad in Cochin’, The Indian
Antiquary (1928), 30. T. K. Joseph further states that the earliest of the
Malabar Christian Coper Plate grants, the Thomas Cana plates of 345 A.D., had a
public copy on a stone set up at the northern gate of the Cranganore temple.
[26]
Francoise Briquel Chatonnet, Alain Desreumaux and Jacob Thekkeparampil, Recueil
Des Inscriptions Syriaques, vol. i: Kerala (Paris, 2008), p. 142.
[27] A.
C. Burnell, ‘On some Pahlavi inscriptions in South India’, The Indian
Antiquary (1874), 314.
[28] A.
C. Burnell, ‘On some Pahlavi inscriptions in South India’, The Indian
Antiquary (1874), 314. B. T. Anklesaria, ‘The Pahlavi inscriptions on the
Crosses of Southern India’, Journal of K R Kama Oriental Institute 39
(1958), 68.
[29] E.
W. West, ‘Inscriptions around Crosses in South India’, Epigraphia Indica
4 (1896-97), 175.
[30] J.
J. Modi, ‘A Christian Cross with a Pahlavi inscription recently discovered in
the Travancore state’, Asiatic papers part IV, Papers read before the Bombay
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, (1929) 1-18. B. T. Anklesaria, ‘The
Pahlavi inscriptions on the Crosses of Southern India’, Journal of K R Kama
Oriental Institute 39 (1958), 68.
[31] B.
T. Anklesaria, ‘The Pahlavi inscriptions on the Crosses of Southern India’, Journal
of K R Kama Oriental Institute 39 (1958), 69.
[32] J.
J. Modi, ‘A Christian Cross with a Pahlavi inscription recently discovered in
the Travancore state’, Asiatic papers part IV, Papers read before the Bombay
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, (1929) 1-18.
[33] C.
P. T. Winkworth, ‘A new interpretation of the Pahlavi Cross inscriptions of
Southern India’, The Journal of Theological Studies, 30/119 (1929), 237-244.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23950669
[34] T. K. Joseph, ‘Revised interpretation of
the Pahlavi Cross inscriptions of South India’, Kerala Society Papers
Series 5 (1930); reprinted as Kerala Society Papers (1997), 267-269.
[35] T. K. Joseph, ‘Revised interpretation of
the Pahlavi Cross inscriptions of South India’, Kerala Society Papers
Series 5 (1930); reprinted as Kerala Society Papers (1997), 267-269.
[36]
Carlo C. Cereti, Luca M. Oliviery, Joseph Vazhuthanapalli, ‘The problem of the
Saint Thomas Crosses and related questions. Epigraphical surveys and
preliminary research’, East and West 52 (2002), 285-310.
[37] B.
T. Anklesaria, ‘The Pahlavi inscriptions on the Crosses of Southern India’, Journal
of K R Kama Oriental Institute 39 (1958), 70.
[38]
George Nedungatt, Quest for the Historical Thomas, Apostle of Inda, a
re-reading of Evidence (Bangalore, 2008), p. 386, citing G Gropp, ‘Die
Pahlavi – Inschrift auf dem Thomaskrus in Madras’, Archaeologische
Mitteilungen aus Iran 3 (1970), 267-271.
[39]
George Nedungatt, op. cit. pp. 385-386, citing Philippe Gignoux, ‘The Pahlavi
inscriptions on Mount Thomas Cross (South India)’, in Ziony
Zevit, Seymour Gitin, and Michael Sokoloff, eds, Solving Riddles and Untying
Knots: Biblical, Epigraphic, and Semitic Studies in Honor of Jonas C.
Greenfield (Winona Lake, 1995), pp. 411-422.
[40] Carlo
C. Cereti, Luca M. Oliviery, Joseph Vazhuthanapalli, ‘The problem of the Saint
Thomas Crosses and related questions. Epigraphical surveys and preliminary
research’, East and West 52 (2002), 285-310.
[41]
Shailanand Hemraj, ‘Pahlavi text and Imagery context of the Persian Cross in
South India, Part I’, Asian Journal of Religious studies 60/1 (2015), 20.
[42] C.
P. T. Winkworth, ‘A New Interpretation of the Pahlavi Cross-Inscriptions of
Southern India’, The Journal of Theological studies 30/119 (1929),
237-244.
[43]
Joseph T K, ‘The Kottayam Cross Inscription’, Kerala Society Papers
Series 5 (1930); reprinted as Kerala Society Papers (1997), 269.
[44] B.
T. Anklesaria, ‘The Pahlavi inscriptions on the Crosses of Southern India’, Journal
of K R Kama Oriental Institute 39 (1958), 70.
[45] M.
T. Antony, ‘Alengad Sliva, the neglected jewel of the ancient Christian
settlement of Alengad’, The Harp 30 (2014), 271.
[46] Francoise
Briquel Chatonnet, Alain Desreumaux and Jacob Thekkeparampil, Recueil Des
Inscriptions Syriaques, vol. i: Kerala (Paris, 2008), p. 81.
[47] Francoise
Briquel Chatonnet, Alain Desreumaux and Jacob Thekkeparampil, Recueil Des
Inscriptions Syriaques, vol. i: Kerala (Paris, 2008), p. 140.
[48] Francoise
Briquel Chatonnet, Alain Desreumaux and Jacob Thekkeparampil, Recueil Des
Inscriptions Syriaques, vol. i: Kerala (Paris, 2008), p. 97.
[49] Francoise
Briquel Chatonnet, Alain Desreumaux and Jacob Thekkeparampil, Recueil Des
Inscriptions Syriaques, vol. i: Kerala (Paris, 2008), pp. 156-157.
[50] Francoise
Briquel Chatonnet, Alain Desreumaux and Jacob Thekkeparampil, Recueil Des
Inscriptions Syriaques, vol. i: Kerala (Paris, 2008), p. 102.
[51] T. K. Joseph, ‘Notes by T K Joseph on Rev H
Hosten S. J., Saint Thomas Christians of Malabar 1490-1504’, Kerala Society Papers Series 5 (1930);
reprinted as Kerala Society Papers (1997), 255.
[52] A
Palm leaf manuscript kept in Kaniyanthra family. It seems that this was written
down in the time around 1773, possibly following oral traditions. There were
several copies of it in different families.
[53] M.
Kurian Thomas, Niranam grandhvary, Padhanavum samshodhanavum (Kottayam,
2000), p. 82.
[54] Udayamperoor Pazhaya palliyude
nalagamam (Malayalam)(Chronicles of Udyamperoor old church) http://www.synodofdiamper.com/mal/index.php accesssed on 29 January 2020
[55] Fra
Paulino Da San Bartolomeo, Voyage to the East Indies, Translated from German
by William Johnston, (London, 1800), pp. 123-124.
[56] T.
K. Joseph, ‘A Travancore inscription in Greek Script’, Journal of Indian
History 28 (1949),
183-184.
[57]
John Bowman, ‘The Christian Monastery on the island of Kharg’, Australian
Journal of Biblical Archaeology 2 (1974-75) 49-64.
